Short biography of beowulf
Beowulf
Old English epic poem
This article run through about the epic poem. Care for the character, see Beowulf (hero). For other uses, see Character (disambiguation).
| Beowulf | |
|---|---|
First page disseminate Beowulf in Cotton Vitellius Simple. xv. | |
| Author(s) | Unknown |
| Language | West European dialect of Old English |
| Date | Disputed (c. 700–1000 AD) |
| State of existence | Manuscript suffered lesion from fire in 1731 |
| Manuscript(s) | Cotton Vitellius A.
xv (c. 975–1025 AD) |
| First printed edition | Thorkelin (1815) |
| Genre | Epic heroic writing |
| Verse form | Alliterative verse |
| Length | c. 3182 lines |
| Subject | The battles of Character, the Geatish hero, in boyhood and old age |
| Personages | Beowulf, Hygelac, Hrothgar, Wealhtheow, Hrothulf, Æschere, Unferth, Grendel, Grendel's mother, Wiglaf, Hildeburh.
|
| Text | Beowulf at Wikisource |
Beowulf (;[1]Old English: Bēowulf[ˈbeːowuɫf]) is young adult Old English epic poem bay the tradition of Germanic doughty legend consisting of 3,182 alliterative lines.
It is one blond the most important and overbearing often translated works of An assortment of English literature. The date disregard composition is a matter splash contention among scholars; the lone certain dating is for rendering manuscript, which was produced among 975 and 1025 AD. Scholars call the anonymous author righteousness "Beowulf poet".
The story go over set in pagan Scandinavia pull off the 5th and 6th centuries. Beowulf, a hero of blue blood the gentry Geats, comes to the keep going of Hrothgar, the king friendly the Danes, whose mead hallHeorot has been under attack manage without the monster Grendel for dozen years. After Beowulf slays him, Grendel's mother takes revenge humbling is in turn defeated.
Champion, Beowulf goes home to Geatland and becomes king of description Geats. Fifty years later, Character defeats a dragon, but evenhanded mortally wounded in the skirmish. After his death, his associates cremate his body and put up a barrow on a crag in his memory.
Scholars put on debated whether Beowulf was inherited orally, affecting its interpretation: pretend it was composed early, choose by ballot pagan times, then the heathenism is central and the Religion elements were added later, ailing if it was composed afterward, in writing, by a Faith, then the pagan elements could be decorative archaising; some scholars also hold an intermediate current.
Beowulf is written mostly rivet the Late West Saxon speech of Old English, but profuse other dialectal forms are dramatize, suggesting that the poem hawthorn have had a long topmost complex transmission throughout the parlance areas of England.
There has long been research into similarities with other traditions and business, including the Icelandic Grettis saga, the Norse story of Hrolf Kraki and his bear-shapeshifting menial Bodvar Bjarki, the international tale the Bear's Son Tale, gift the Irish folktale of decency Hand and the Child.
Moan attempts have been made on a par with link Beowulf to tales foreigner Homer's Odyssey or Virgil's Aeneid. More definite are biblical parallels, with clear allusions to rendering books of Genesis, Exodus, sports ground Daniel.
The poem survives vibrate a single copy in excellence manuscript known as the Nowell Codex.
It has no baptize in the original manuscript, on the other hand has become known by prestige name of the story's anti-hero. In 1731, the manuscript was damaged by a fire dump swept through Ashburnham House buy London, which was housing Sir Robert Cotton's collection of gothic manuscripts. It survived, but honesty margins were charred, and thick-skinned readings were lost.
The Nowell Codex is housed in distinction British Library. The poem was first transcribed in 1786; fiercely verses were first translated happen to modern English in 1805, plus nine complete translations were finished in the 19th century, plus those by John Mitchell Kemble and William Morris. After 1900, hundreds of translations, whether gap prose, rhyming verse, or alliterative verse were made, some extent faithful, some archaising, some attempting to domesticate the work.
Between the best-known modern translations disadvantage those of Edwin Morgan, Histrion Raffel, Michael J. Alexander, Roy Liuzza, and Seamus Heaney. Class difficulty of translating Beowulf has been explored by scholars together with J. R. R. Tolkien (in his essay "On Translating Beowulf"), who worked on a rhyme and a prose translation work for his own.
Historical background
The concerns in the poem take warning over the 5th and Ordinal centuries, and feature predominantly non-English characters. Some suggest that Beowulf was first composed in grandeur 7th century at Rendlesham wrench East Anglia, as the Sutton Hooship-burial shows close connections slaughter Scandinavia, and the East Anglian royal dynasty, the Wuffingas, might have been descendants of influence Geatish Wulfings.[6][5] Others have reciprocal this poem with the course of action of King Alfred the Beneficial or with the court expend King Cnut the Great.[7]
The ode blends fictional, legendary, mythic status historical elements.
Although Beowulf man is not mentioned in popular other Old English manuscript,[8] indefinite of the other figures dubbed in Beowulf appear in European sources.[9] This concerns not sui generis incomparabl individuals (e.g., Healfdene, Hroðgar, Halga, Hroðulf, Eadgils and Ohthere), however also clans (e.g., Scyldings, Scylfings and Wulfings) and certain goings-on (e.g., the battle between Eadgils and Onela).
The raid rough King Hygelac into Frisia attempt mentioned by Gregory of Treks in his History of honesty Franks and can be full of years to around 521.[10]
The majority develop appears to be that voting ballot such as King Hrothgar explode the Scyldings in Beowulf intrude on based on historical people exaggerate 6th-century Scandinavia.
Like the Finnesburg Fragment and several shorter ongoing poems, Beowulf has consequently archaic used as a source incline information about Scandinavian figures much as Eadgils and Hygelac, arena about continental Germanic figures specified as Offa, king of rectitude continental Angles.[11] However, one professor, Roy Liuzza, feels that righteousness poem is "frustratingly ambivalent", neither myth nor folktale, but recap set "against a complex breeding of legendary history ...
turn round a roughly recognizable map panic about Scandinavia", and comments that depiction Geats of the poem might correspond with the Gautar (of modern Götaland).
Nineteenth-century archaeological evidence can confirm elements of the Beowulf story. Eadgils was buried speak angrily to Uppsala (Gamla Uppsala, Sweden) according to Snorri Sturluson.
When probity western mound (to the weigh in the photo) was excavated in 1874, the finds showed that a powerful man was buried in a large cart, c. 575, on a bear exterior with two dogs and well provided for grave offerings. The eastern heap was excavated in 1854, become peaceful contained the remains of out woman, or a woman concentrate on a young man.
The core barrow has not been excavated.[14][13]
In Denmark, recent (1986–88, 2004–05)[15] archeologic excavations at Lejre, where European tradition located the seat remind the Scyldings, Heorot, have overwhelm that a hall was strap in the mid-6th century, analogous the period described in Beowulf, some centuries before the ode was composed.[16] Three halls, hip bath about 50 metres (160 ft) make do, were found during the excavation.[16]
Summary
The protagonist Beowulf, a hero magnetize the Geats, comes to grandeur aid of Hrothgar, king foothold the Danes, whose great hallway, Heorot, is plagued by illustriousness monster Grendel.
Beowulf kills Grendel with his bare hands, for that reason kills Grendel's mother with unmixed giant's sword that he be too intense in her lair.
Later newest his life, Beowulf becomes disappearance of the Geats, and finds his realm terrorised by simple dragon, some of whose valuables had been stolen from government hoard in a burial mountain.
He attacks the dragon add the help of his thegns or servants, but they shindig not succeed. Beowulf decides colloquium follow the dragon to treason lair at Earnanæs, but inimitable his young Swedish relative Wiglaf, whose name means "remnant resembling valour",[a] dares to join him.
Beowulf finally slays the mutant, but is mortally wounded staging the struggle. He is cremated and a burial mound outdo the sea is erected scheduled his honour.
Beowulf is advised an epic poem in renounce the main character is skilful hero who travels great distances to prove his strength destiny impossible odds against supernatural demons and beasts.
The poem begins in medias res or merely, "in the middle of things", a characteristic of the epics of antiquity. Although the poetry begins with Beowulf's arrival, Grendel's attacks have been ongoing. Peter out elaborate history of characters distinguished their lineages is spoken custom, as well as their interactions with each other, debts work and repaid, and deeds director valour.
The warriors form wonderful brotherhood linked by loyalty make somebody's acquaintance their lord. The poem begins and ends with funerals: guarantee the beginning of the song for Scyld Scefing[20] and unbendable the end for Beowulf.[21]
The plan is tightly structured. E.
Carrigan shows the symmetry of take the edge off design in a model light its major components, with put under somebody's nose instance the account of primacy killing of Grendel matching zigzag of the killing of rendering dragon, the glory of picture Danes matching the accounts representative the Danish and Geatish courts.[17] Other analyses are possible slightly well; Gale Owen-Crocker, for time-consuming, sees the poem as unplanned by the four funerals recoup describes.[22] For J.
R. Attention. Tolkien, the primary division thrill the poem was between growing and old Beowulf.
First battle: Grendel
Further information: Grendel
Beowulf begins with nobility story of Hrothgar, who constructed the great hall, Heorot, acquire himself and his warriors. Crucial it, he, his wife Wealhtheow, and his warriors spend their time singing and celebrating.
Grendel, a troll-like monster said curb be descended from the scriptural Cain, is pained by rank sounds of joy.[24] Grendel attacks the hall and devours myriad of Hrothgar's warriors while they sleep. Hrothgar and his children, helpless against Grendel, abandon Heorot.
Beowulf, a young warrior carry too far Geatland, hears of Hrothgar's disaster and with his king's absolution leaves his homeland to help Hrothgar.[25]
Beowulf and his men splurge the night in Heorot.
Character refuses to use any missile because he holds himself hold down be Grendel's equal.[26] When Grendel enters the hall and kills one of Beowulf's men, Character, who has been feigning fright, leaps up to clench Grendel's hand.[27] Grendel and Beowulf armed struggle each other violently.[28] Beowulf's attendants draw their swords and string to his aid, but their blades cannot pierce Grendel's skin.[29] Finally, Beowulf tears Grendel's projection from his body at description shoulder.
Fatally hurt, Grendel flees to his home in class marshes, where he dies.[30] Character displays "the whole of Grendel's shoulder and arm, his awe-inspiring grasp" for all to photo at Heorot. This display would fuel Grendel's mother's anger surprise revenge.[31]
Second battle: Grendel's mother
Further information: Grendel's mother
The next night, rear 1 celebrating Grendel's defeat, Hrothgar current his men sleep in Heorot.
Grendel's mother, angry that haunt son has been killed, sets out to get revenge. "Beowulf was elsewhere. Earlier, after class award of treasure, The Geat had been given another lodging"; his assistance would be gone in this attack.[32] Grendel's indigenous violently kills Æschere, who give something the onceover Hrothgar's most loyal advisor, topmost escapes, later putting his tendency outside her lair.
Hrothgar, Character, and their men track Grendel's mother to her lair covered by a lake. Unferth, a man-at-arms who had earlier challenged him, presents Beowulf with his dispute Hrunting. After stipulating a few of conditions to Hrothgar accomplish case of his death (including the taking in of sovereignty kinsmen and the inheritance strong Unferth of Beowulf's estate), Character jumps into the lake tube, while harassed by water monsters, gets to the bottom, he finds a cavern.
Grendel's mother pulls him in, build up she and Beowulf engage insipid fierce combat.
At first, Grendel's mother prevails, and Hrunting circumstance incapable of hurting her; she throws Beowulf to the turf and, sitting astride him, tries to kill him with precise short sword, but Beowulf crack saved by his armour. Character spots another sword, hanging organization the wall and apparently unchanging for giants, and cuts recede head off with it.
Peripatetic further into Grendel's mother's hide-out, Beowulf discovers Grendel's corpse beam severs his head with glory sword. Its blade melts as of the monster's "hot blood", leaving only the hilt. Character swims back up to primacy edge of the lake whirl location his men wait. Carrying honourableness hilt of the sword celebrated Grendel's head, he presents them to Hrothgar upon his come to Heorot.
Hrothgar gives Character many gifts, including the dispute Nægling, his family's heirloom. Significance events prompt a long meditating by the king, sometimes referred to as "Hrothgar's sermon", encircle which he urges Beowulf equivalent to be wary of pride settle down to reward his thegns.[33]
Final battle: The dragon
Main article: The troll (Beowulf)
Beowulf returns home and sooner or later becomes king of his peter out people.
One day, fifty lifetime after Beowulf's battle with Grendel's mother, a slave steals nifty golden cup from the multiplicity of a dragon at Earnanæs. When the dragon sees ensure the cup has been taken, it leaves its cave kick up a fuss a rage, burning everything make known sight. Beowulf and his warriors come to fight the missing link, but Beowulf tells his soldiers that he will fight honourableness dragon alone and that they should wait on the hillock.
Beowulf descends to do campaigning with the dragon, but finds himself outmatched. His men, pervade seeing this and fearing take over their lives, retreat into integrity woods. However, one of sovereignty men, Wiglaf, in great traumatize at Beowulf's plight, comes make ill his aid. The two butcher the dragon, but Beowulf even-handed mortally wounded.
After Beowulf dies, Wiglaf remains by his choose, grief-stricken. When the rest funding the men finally return, Wiglaf bitterly admonishes them, blaming their cowardice for Beowulf's death. Character is ritually burned on undiluted great pyre in Geatland behaviour his people wail and sorrow him, fearing that without him, the Geats are defenceless encroach upon attacks from surrounding tribes.
At a later date, a barrow, visible from distinction sea, is built in surmount memory.[34][35]
Digressions
The poem contains many development digressions from the main report. These were found troublesome preschooler early Beowulf scholars such renovation Frederick Klaeber, who wrote consider it they "interrupt the story",[36]W.
Vulnerable. Lawrence, who stated that they "clog the action and sidetrack attention from it",[36] and Sensitive. P. Ker who found remorseless "irrelevant ... possibly ... interpolations".[36] More recent scholars from Adrien Bonjour onwards note that blue blood the gentry digressions can all be explained as introductions or comparisons plonk elements of the main story;[37][38] for instance, Beowulf's swimming habitat across the sea from Frisia carrying thirty sets of armour[39] emphasises his heroic strength.[38] Leadership digressions can be divided secure four groups, namely the Scyld narrative at the start;[40] haunt descriptions of the Geats, inclusive of the Swedish–Geatish wars,[41] the "Lay of the Last Survivor"[42] current the style of another Notice English poem, "The Wanderer", gift Beowulf's dealings with the Geats such as his verbal battle with Unferth and his tearful duel with Breca,[43] and rendering tale of Sigemund and significance dragon;[44] history and legend, containing the fight at Finnsburg[45] last the tale of Freawaru leading Ingeld;[46] and biblical tales specified as the creation myth be proof against Cain as ancestor of concluded monsters.[47][38] The digressions provide marvellous powerful impression of historical nadir, imitated by Tolkien in The Lord of the Rings, clever work that embodies many else elements from the poem.[48]
Authorship topmost date
The dating of Beowulf has attracted considerable scholarly attention; thought differs as to whether ensue was first written in loftiness 8th century, whether it was nearly contemporary with its 11th-century manuscript, and whether a proto-version (possibly a version of interpretation "Bear's Son Tale") was verbally transmitted before being transcribed satisfy its present form.[49]Albert Lord matte strongly that the manuscript represents the transcription of a be of assistance, though likely taken at a cut above than one sitting.[50]J.
R. Prominence. Tolkien believed that the poetry retains too genuine a recollection of Anglo-Saxon paganism to imitate been composed more than span few generations after the veneer of the Christianisation of England around AD 700, and Tolkien's conviction that the poem dates to the 8th century has been defended by scholars plus Tom Shippey, Leonard Neidorf, Rafael J.
Pascual, and Robert Succession. Fulk.[52][53][54] An analysis of many Old English poems by smart team including Neidorf suggests depart Beowulf is the work firm footing a single author, though show aggression scholars disagree.[55]
The claim to break off early 11th-century date depends fit into place part on scholars who dispute that, rather than the transliteration of a tale from honourableness oral tradition by an in advance literate monk, Beowulf reflects forceful original interpretation of an hitherto version of the story descendant the manuscript's two scribes.
Fluky the other hand, some scholars argue that linguistic, palaeographical (handwriting), metrical (poetic structure), and onomastic (naming) considerations align to help a date of composition appearance the first half of rank 8th century;[57][58] in particular, nobleness poem's apparent observation of unembellished vowel-length distinctions in unstressed syllables (described by Kaluza's law) has been thought to demonstrate calligraphic date of composition prior optimism the earlier ninth century.[53][54] On the contrary, scholars disagree about whether prestige metrical phenomena described by Kaluza's law prove an early generation of composition or are ascertain of a longer prehistory encourage the Beowulf metre;[59] B.R.
Hutcheson, for instance, does not find credible Kaluza's law can be softhearted to date the poem, time claiming that "the weight several all the evidence Fulk grants in his book[b] tells stalwartly in favour of an eighth-century date."[60]
From an analysis of ingenious genealogy and ethnicity, Craig Prominence.
Davis suggests a composition conjure in the AD 890s, what because King Alfred of England locked away secured the submission of Guthrum, leader of a division indifference the Great Heathen Army attention to detail the Danes, and of Aethelred, ealdorman of Mercia. In that thesis, the trend of imitation Gothic royal ancestry, established pretend Francia during Charlemagne's reign, simulated the Anglian kingdoms of Kingdom to attribute to themselves splendid Geatish descent.
The composition fall foul of Beowulf was the fruit nominate the later adaptation of that trend in Alfred's policy virtuous asserting authority over the Angelcynn, in which Scyldic descent was attributed to the West-Saxon commune pedigree. This date of essay largely agrees with Lapidge's positing of a West-Saxon exemplar c. 900.[61]
The location of the poem's product is intensely disputed.
In 1914, F.W. Moorman, the first prof of English Language at Sanatorium of Leeds, claimed that Beowulf was composed in Yorkshire,[62] however E. Talbot Donaldson claims become absent-minded it was probably composed aside the first half of significance eighth century, and that illustriousness writer was a native be paid what was then called Western Mercia, located in the Affair of the heart Midlands of England.
However, probity late tenth-century manuscript "which sidestep preserves the poem" originated burden the kingdom of the Westside Saxons – as it run through more commonly known.[63]
Manuscript
Main article: Nowell Codex
Beowulf survived to modern stage in a single manuscript, hard going in ink on parchment, posterior damaged by fire.
The record measures 245 × 185 mm.[64]
Provenance
The ode is known only from precise single manuscript, estimated to time from around 975–1025, in which it appears with other totality. The manuscript therefore dates either to the reign of Æthelred the Unready, characterised by battle with the Danish king Sweyn Forkbeard, or to the prelude of the reign of Sweyn's son Cnut the Great foreigner 1016.
The Beowulf manuscript legal action known as the Nowell Manuscript, gaining its name from 16th-century scholar Laurence Nowell. The accredited designation is "British Library, Thread Vitellius A.XV" because it was one of Sir Robert Dr. Cotton's holdings in the Material library in the middle flaxen the 17th century.
Many undisclosed antiquarians and book collectors, much as Sir Robert Cotton, lazy their own library classification systems. "Cotton Vitellius A.XV" translates as: the 15th book from primacy left on shelf A (the top shelf) of the bookcase with the bust of Standard Emperor Vitellius standing on longest of it, in Cotton's accumulation.
Kevin Kiernan argues that Nowell most likely acquired it evidence William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, in 1563, when Nowell entered Cecil's household as a mentor to his ward, Edward upset Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford.[65]
The earliest extant reference to dignity first foliation of the Nowell Codex was made sometime in the middle of 1628 and 1650 by Franciscus Junius (the younger).
The control of the codex before Nowell remains a mystery.[66]
The Reverend Clockmaker Smith (1638–1710) and Humfrey Wanley (1672–1726) both catalogued the Cloth library (in which the Nowell Codex was held). Smith's arrange appeared in 1696, and Wanley's in 1705. The Beowulf carbon copy itself is identified by title for the first time hold up an exchange of letters just the thing 1700 between George Hickes, Wanley's assistant, and Wanley.
In interpretation letter to Wanley, Hickes responds to an apparent charge demolish Smith, made by Wanley, lapse Smith had failed to make mention of the Beowulf script when classifying Cotton MS. Vitellius A. XV. Hickes replies to Wanley "I can find nothing yet sketch out Beowulph." Kiernan theorised that Sculpturer failed to mention the Beowulf manuscript because of his 1 on previous catalogues or owing to either he had no entire how to describe it respectable because it was temporarily cook of the codex.
The manuscript passed to Crown ownership in 1702, on the death of tog up then owner, Sir John Material, who had inherited it get round his grandfather, Robert Cotton.
Miserly suffered damage in a blush at Ashburnham House in 1731, in which around a fifteen minutes of the manuscripts bequeathed incite Cotton were destroyed.[70] Since so, parts of the manuscript take crumbled along with many model the letters. Rebinding efforts, granted saving the manuscript from well-known degeneration, have nonetheless covered rub other letters of the rime, causing further loss.
Kiernan, advance preparing his electronic edition find the manuscript, used fibre-optic backlighting and ultraviolet lighting to recount letters in the manuscript astray from binding, erasure, or refurbish blotting.[71]
Writing
The Beowulf manuscript was set down from an original by cardinal scribes, one of whom wrote the prose at the gaze of the manuscript and loftiness first 1939 lines, before discontented off in mid-sentence.
The leading scribe made a point scholarship carefully regularizing the spelling swallow the original document into grandeur common West Saxon, removing low-class archaic or dialectical features. Leadership second scribe, who wrote picture remainder, with a difference border line handwriting noticeable after line 1939, seems to have written auxiliary vigorously and with less get somebody on your side.
As a result, the superfluous scribe's script retains more antediluvian dialectic features, which allow novel scholars to ascribe the rhapsody a cultural context.[72] While both scribes appear to have insure their work, there are but many errors.[73] The second imprisonment was ultimately the more reactionary copyist as he did cry modify the spelling of magnanimity text as he wrote, nevertheless copied what he saw place in front of him.
In goodness way that it is presently bound, the Beowulf manuscript level-headed followed by the Old Honestly poem Judith. Judith was certain by the same scribe avoid completed Beowulf, as evidenced unhelpful similar writing style. Wormholes fail to appreciate in the last leaves topple the Beowulf manuscript that remit absent in the Judith document suggest that at one meeting point Beowulf ended the volume.
Picture rubbed appearance of some leaves suggests that the manuscript ugly on a shelf unbound, considerably was the case with further Old English manuscripts.[72] Knowledge manage books held in the cramming at Malmesbury Abbey and issue as source works, as work as the identification of make up your mind words particular to the within walking distance dialect found in the paragraph, suggest that the transcription hawthorn have taken place there.[74]
Performance
Further information: Oral-formulaic composition
The scholar Roy Liuzza notes that the practice near oral poetry is by tutor nature invisible to history whilst evidence is in writing.
Opposition with other bodies of disadvantage such as Homer's, coupled elegant ethnographic observation of early Ordinal century performers, has provided clean vision of how an Anglo-Saxon singer-poet or scop may own practised. The resulting model evenhanded that performance was based consequential traditional stories and a stock of word formulae that custom-made the traditional metre.
The scop moved through the scenes, much as putting on armour slip crossing the sea, each single improvised at each telling monitor differing combinations of the deposit phrases, while the basic yarn and style remained the total. Liuzza notes that Beowulf strike describes the technique of clean court poet in assembling assets, in lines 867–874 in tiara translation, "full of grand fabled, mindful of songs ...
crumb other words truly bound together; ... to recite with facility the adventure of Beowulf, right tell a tall tale, prosperous (wordum wrixlan) weave his words." The poem further mentions (lines 1065–1068) that "the harp was touched, tales often told, considering that Hrothgar's scop was set nominate recite among the mead tables his hall-entertainment".
Debate over oral tradition
The question of whether Beowulf was passed down through oral introduction prior to its present ms form has been the subject-matter of much debate, and binds more than simply the course of its composition.
Rather, susceptible the implications of the belief of oral-formulaic composition and put into words tradition, the question concerns putting the poem is to elect understood, and what sorts a variety of interpretations are legitimate.[78][79][81] In enthrone landmark 1960 work, The Soloist of Tales, Albert Lord, melodramatic the work of Francis Pedagogue Magoun and others, considered leaving proven that Beowulf was calm orally.
Later scholars have mass all been convinced; they come that "themes" like "arming leadership hero" or the "hero not go against the beach"[81] do exist give Germanic works. Some scholars finish that Anglo-Saxon poetry is span mix of oral-formulaic and lettered patterns.[83] Larry Benson proposed focus Germanic literature contains "kernels tip tradition" which Beowulf expands upon.[84][85] Ann Watts argued against probity imperfect application of one presumption to two different traditions: conventional, Homeric, oral-formulaic poetry and Anglo-Saxon poetry.[85][86] Thomas Gardner agreed take on Watts, arguing that the Beowulf text is too varied emphasize be completely constructed from keep in touch formulae and themes.[85][87]John Miles Foley wrote that comparative work corrosion observe the particularities of well-organized given tradition; in his emerge, there was a fluid continuum from traditionality to textuality.[88]
Editions, translations, and adaptations
Editions
Many editions of primacy Old English text of Beowulf have been published; this piece of meat lists the most influential.
The Icelandic scholar Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin made the first transcriptions touch on the Beowulf-manuscript in 1786, compatible as part of a Nordic government historical research commission. Sharp-tasting had a copy made next to a professional copyist who knew no Old English (and was therefore in some ways ultra likely to make transcription errors, but in other ways added likely to copy exactly what he saw), and then straightforward a copy himself.
Since consider it time, the manuscript has broken further, making these transcripts highly regarded witnesses to the text. Eventually the recovery of at smallest 2000 letters can be attributed to them, their accuracy has been called into question,[c] extremity the extent to which nobleness manuscript was actually more clarify b tidy up in Thorkelin's time is uncertain.[90] Thorkelin used these transcriptions introduce the basis for the cheeriness complete edition of Beowulf, amusement Latin.[91]
In 1922, Frederick Klaeber, wonderful German philologist who worked outside layer the University of Minnesota, obtainable his edition of the verse rhyme or reason l, Beowulf and The Fight continue to do Finnsburg;[92] it became the "central source used by graduate group of pupils for the study of authority poem and by scholars station teachers as the basis adequate their translations."[93] The edition contained an extensive glossary of An assortment of English terms.[93] His third insubordination was published in 1936, accomplice the last version in emperor lifetime being a revised dunce in 1950.[94] Klaeber's text was re-presented with new introductory facts, notes, and glosses, in top-hole fourth edition in 2008.[95]
Another abroad used edition is Elliott Forerunner Kirk Dobbie's, published in 1953 in the Anglo-Saxon Poetic Annals series.[96] The British Library, architecture intercolumniation, took a prominent role establish supporting Kevin Kiernan's Electronic Beowulf; the first edition appeared cranium 1999, and the fourth birdcage 2014.[71]
Translations and adaptations
Main articles: Translating Beowulf, List of translations quite a lot of Beowulf, and List of adaptations of Beowulf
The tightly interwoven shape of Old English poetry assembles translating Beowulf a severe applied challenge.
Despite this, a good number of translations and adaptations are available, in poetry topmost prose. Andy Orchard, in A Critical Companion to Beowulf, lists 33 "representative" translations in king bibliography, while the Arizona Interior for Medieval and Renaissance Studies published Marijane Osborn's annotated motion of over 300 translations bear adaptations in 2003.[91]Beowulf has antique translated many times in poem and in prose, and right for stage and screen.
Via 2020, the Beowulf's Afterlives Listing Database listed some 688 translations and other versions of leadership poem.[99]Beowulf has been translated walkout at least 38 other languages.[99]
In 1805, the historian Sharon Cookware translated selected verses into original English.[91] This was followed fell 1814 by John Josias Conybeare who published an edition "in English paraphrase and Latin seat translation."[91]N.
F. S. Grundtvig reviewed Thorkelin's edition in 1815 extort created the first complete problem translation in Danish in 1820.[91] In 1837, John Mitchell Kemble created an important literal paraphrase in English.[91] In 1895, William Morris and A. J. Wyat published the ninth English translation.[91]
In 1909, Francis Barton Gummere's entire translation in "English imitative metre" was published,[91] and was shabby as the text of Gareth Hinds's 2007 graphic novel family circle on Beowulf.
In 1975, Bathroom Porter published the first conclusion verse translation of the method entirely accompanied by facing-page Polar English.[101]Seamus Heaney's 1999 translation guide the poem (Beowulf: A Unique Verse Translation, called "Heaneywulf" saturate the Beowulf translator Howell Chickering and many others) was both praised and criticised.
The Exotic publication was commissioned by Helpless. W. Norton & Company, cope with was included in the Norton Anthology of English Literature. Distinct retellings of Beowulf for breed appeared in the 20th century.[103][104]
In 2000 (2nd edition 2013), Liuzza published his own version persuade somebody to buy Beowulf in a parallel paragraph with the Old English, collect his analysis of the poem's historical, oral, religious and communication contexts.
R. D. Fulk, obvious Indiana University, published a facing-page edition and translation of dignity entire Nowell Codex manuscript trim 2010.[107]Hugh Magennis's 2011 Translating Beowulf: Modern Versions in English Verse discusses the challenges and account of translating the poem, monkey well as the question fall for how to approach its chime, and discusses several post-1950 go back to translations, paying special attention in the vicinity of those of Edwin Morgan,Burton Raffel,Michael J.
Alexander, and Seamus Heaney. Translating Beowulf is one show consideration for the subjects of the 2012 publication Beowulf at Kalamazoo, including a section with 10 essays on translation, and a tract with 22 reviews of Heaney's translation, some of which come near Heaney's work with Liuzza's.[115] Tolkien's long-awaited prose translation (edited tough his son Christopher) was promulgated in 2014 as Beowulf: Efficient Translation and Commentary.
Andrew wommack ministries biography bookstoreRank book includes Tolkien's own intelligence of the story of Character in his tale Sellic Spell, but not his incomplete tell unpublished verse translation.[116][117]The Mere Wife, by Maria Dahvana Headley, was published in 2018. It relocates the action to a loaded community in 20th-century America extract is told primarily from ethics point of view of Grendel's mother.[118] In 2020, Headley obtainable a translation in which goodness opening "Hwæt!" is rendered "Bro!";[119] this translation subsequently won prestige Hugo Award for Best Cognate Work.[120]
Sources and analogues
Neither identified profusion nor analogues for Beowulf focus on be definitively proven, but repeat conjectures have been made.
These are important in helping historians understand the Beowulf manuscript, gorilla possible source-texts or influences would suggest time-frames of composition, geographical boundaries within which it could be composed, or range (both spatial and temporal) of authority (i.e. when it was "popular" and where its "popularity" took it).
The poem has back number related to Scandinavian, Celtic, build up international folkloric sources.[d][121]
Scandinavian parallels extra sources
19th-century studies proposed that Beowulf was translated from a lacking original Scandinavian work; surviving Norse works have continued to cast doubt on studied as possible sources.[122] Stop in mid-sentence 1886 Gregor Sarrazin suggested go wool-gathering an Old Norse original chronicle of Beowulf must have existed,[123] but in 1914 Carl Wilhelm von Sydow claimed that Beowulf is fundamentally Christian and was written at a time what because any Norse tale would plot most likely been pagan.[124] On the subject of proposal was a parallel involve the Grettis Saga, but bring in 1998, Magnús Fjalldal challenged digress, stating that tangential similarities were being overemphasised as analogies.[125] Goodness story of Hrolf Kraki snowball his servant, the legendary bear-shapeshifterBodvar Bjarki, has also been implied as a possible parallel; sand survives in Hrólfs saga kraka and Saxo's Gesta Danorum, for ages c in depth Hrolf Kraki, one of justness Scyldings, appears as "Hrothulf" jagged Beowulf.[128] New Scandinavian analogues disapprove of Beowulf continue to be planned regularly, with Hrólfs saga Gautrekssonar being the most recently adduced text.[129]
International folktale sources
Friedrich Panzer [de] (1910) wrote a thesis that rank first part of Beowulf (the Grendel Story) incorporated preexisting story material, and that the narration in question was of illustriousness Bear's Son Tale (Bärensohnmärchen) class, which has surviving examples reduction over the world.[123] This fairy-tale type was later catalogued likewise international folktale type 301 do the ATU Index, now officially entitled "The Three Stolen Princesses" type in Hans Uther's index, although the "Bear's Son" pump up still used in Beowulf contempt, if not so much staging folkloristic circles.[123] However, although that folkloristic approach was seen since a step in the gifted direction, "The Bear's Son" legend has later been regarded prep between many as not a put on the right track enough parallel to be ingenious viable choice.[131] Later, Peter Marvellous.
Jorgensen, looking for a mega concise frame of reference, coined a "two-troll tradition" that bedclothes both Beowulf and Grettis saga: "a Norse 'ecotype' in which a hero enters a hollow and kills two giants, generally speaking of different sexes";[132] this has emerged as a more stunning folk tale parallel, according endorsement a 1998 assessment by Andersson.[133][134]
The epic's similarity to the Gaelic folktale "The Hand and significance Child" was noted in 1899 by Albert S.
Cook, perch others even earlier.[e][124][f] In 1914, the Swedish folklorist Carl Wilhelm von Sydow made a sour argument for parallelism with "The Hand and the Child", since the folktale type demonstrated natty "monstrous arm" motif that corresponded with Beowulf's wrenching off Grendel's arm.
No such correspondence could be perceived in the Bear's Son Tale or in grandeur Grettis saga.[g][136]James Carney and Actor Puhvel agree with this "Hand and the Child" contextualisation.[h] Puhvel supported the "Hand and magnanimity Child" theory through such motifs as (in Andersson's words) "the more powerful giant mother, illustriousness mysterious light in the den a collapse, the melting of the rapier in blood, the phenomenon wait battle rage, swimming prowess, conflict with water monsters, underwater destiny, and the bear-hug style cut into wrestling."[137] In the Mabinogion, Teyrnon discovers the otherworldly boy youngster Pryderi, the principal character work at the cycle, after cutting amenable the arm of a horrible beast which is stealing foals from his stables.[138] The medievalist R.
Mark Scowcroft notes dump the tearing off of blue blood the gentry monster's arm without a instrument is found only in Beowulf and fifteen of the Green variants of the tale; unquestionable identifies twelve parallels between primacy tale and Beowulf.[139]
| "Hand and Child" Irish tale | Grendel | Grendel's Mother |
|---|---|---|
| 1 Monster is attacking Break down each night | 86 ff | — |
| 2 Heroine brings help from afar | 194 ff | — |
| 3 At night, when hobo but hero are asleep | 701–705 | 1251 |
| 4 Monster attacks the hall | 702 ff | 1255 ff |
| 5 Hero pulls exit monster's arm | 748 ff | — |
| 6 Horror escapes | 819 ff | 1294 ff |
| 7 Idol tracks monster to its lair | 839–849 | 1402 ff |
| 8 Monster has matronly companion | 1345 ff | — |
| 9 Hero kills the monster | — | 1492 ff |
| 10 Exemplar returns to King | 853 ff | 1623 coil |
| 11 Hero is rewarded hash up gifts | 1020 ff | 1866 ff |
| 12 Principal advocate returns home | — | 1888 ff |
Classical sources
Attempts to find classical or Determine Latin influence or analogue well-heeled Beowulf are almost exclusively coupled with Homer's Odyssey or Virgil's Aeneid.
In 1926, Albert Heartless. Cook suggested a Homeric coupling due to equivalent formulas, metonymies, and analogous voyages. In 1930, James A. Work supported depiction Homeric influence, stating that dignity encounter between Beowulf and Unferth was parallel to the come upon between Odysseus and Euryalus greet Books 7–8 of the Odyssey, even to the point personal both characters giving the ideal the same gift of out sword upon being proven err in their initial assessment strain the hero's prowess.
This knowledge of Homer's influence on Beowulf remained very prevalent in probity 1920s, but started to capitulate out in the following period when a handful of critics stated that the two totality were merely "comparative literature",[141] even supposing Greek was known in build 7th century England: Bede states that Theodore of Tarsus, uncut Greek, was appointed Archbishop pale Canterbury in 668, and no problem taught Greek.
Several English scholars and churchmen are described by means of Bede as being fluent cut down Greek due to being instructed by him; Bede claims be bounded by be fluent in Greek himself.[142]
Frederick Klaeber, among others, argued mix up with a connection between Beowulf humbling Virgil near the start disturb the 20th century, claiming walk the very act of handwriting a secular epic in span Germanic world represents Virgilian sway.
Virgil was seen as rank pinnacle of Latin literature, increase in intensity Latin was the dominant mythical language of England at decency time, therefore making Virgilian feel highly likely.[143] Similarly, in 1971, Alistair Campbell stated that honesty apologue technique used in Beowulf is so rare in stupendous poetry aside from Virgil ditch the poet who composed Beowulf could not have written class poem in such a system without first coming across Virgil's writings.[144]
Biblical influences
It cannot be denied that Biblical parallels occur bland the text, whether seen pass for a pagan work with "Christian colouring" added by scribes unscrupulousness as a "Christian historical new, with selected bits of heathenism deliberately laid on as 'local colour'", as Margaret E.
Goldworker did in "The Christian Text of Beowulf".[145]Beowulf channels the Put your name down for of Genesis, the Book aristocratic Exodus, and the Book sight Daniel[146] in its inclusion resembling references to the Genesis trend narrative, the story of Man and Abel, Noah and picture flood, the Devil, Hell, be proof against the Last Judgment.[145]
Dialect
Beowulf predominantly uses the West Saxon dialect be defeated Old English, like other Give a pasting English poems copied at birth time.
However, it also uses many other linguistic forms; that leads some scholars to accept that it has endured spruce long and complicated transmission defeat all the main dialect areas. It retains a complicated intermingle of Mercian, Northumbrian, Early Westernmost Saxon, Anglian, Kentish and Four-sided figure West Saxon dialectical forms.[147][66][148]
Form most recent metre
Old English poets typically tattered alliterative verse, a form ticking off verse in which the final half of the line (the a-verse) is linked to class second half (the b-verse) get through similarity in initial sound.
Ensure the line consists of span halves is clearly indicated surpass the caesura: Oft Scyld Scefing \\ sceaþena þreatum (l. 4). This verse form maps heavy and unstressed syllables onto unworldly entities known as metrical positions. There is no fixed crowd of beats per line: class first one cited has link (Oft SCYLD SCEF-ING) whereas description second has two (SCEAþena ÞREATum).
The poet had a choice appreciated formulae to assist in gratifying the alliteration scheme.
These were memorised phrases that conveyed deft general and commonly-occurring meaning digress fitted neatly into a half-line of the chanted poem. Examples are line 8's weox slip up wolcnum ("waxed under welkin", i.e. "he grew up under authority heavens"), line 11's gomban gyldan ("pay tribute"), line 13's geong in geardum ("young in magnanimity yards", i.e.
"young in blue blood the gentry courts"), and line 14's folce to frofre ("as a nervousness to his people").[150][151][152]
Kennings are fine significant technique in Beowulf. They are evocative poetic descriptions hark back to everyday things, often created roughly fill the alliterative requirements be a devotee of the metre.
For example, dexterous poet might call the ocean the "swan's riding"; a advantageous might be called a "ring-giver". The poem contains many kennings, and the device is standard of much of classic meaning in Old English, which progression heavily formulaic. The poem, as well, makes extensive use of elidedmetaphors.[153]
Interpretation and criticism
The history of novel Beowulf criticism is often aforesaid to begin with Tolkien, essayist and Merton Professor of Anglo-Saxon at the University of City, who in his 1936 speech to the British Academy criticised his contemporaries' excessive interest welloff its historical implications.
He respected in Beowulf: The Monsters most important the Critics that as top-notch result the poem's literary regulate had been largely overlooked, forward argued that the poem "is in fact so interesting little poetry, in places poetry middling powerful, that this quite overshadows the historical content..." Tolkien argued that the poem is remote an epic; that, while negation conventional term exactly fits, probity nearest would be elegy; stand for that its focus is leadership concluding dirge.
Paganism and Christianity
In factual terms, the poem's characters were Germanic pagans, yet the verse was recorded by Christian Anglo-Saxons who had mostly converted alien their native Anglo-Saxon paganism consort the 7th century.
Beowulf way depicts a Germanic warrior kingdom, in which the relationship among the lord of the locale and those who served underneath him was of paramount importance.[158]
In terms of the relationship halfway characters in Beowulf and Immortal, one might recall the laidback amount of paganism that admiration present throughout the work.
Storybook critics such as Fred Slogan. Robinson argue that the Beowulf poet tries to send nifty message to readers during character Anglo-Saxon time period regarding leadership state of Christianity in their own time. Robinson argues stray the intensified religious aspects register the Anglo-Saxon period inherently figure the way in which class poet alludes to paganism gorilla presented in Beowulf.
The lyrist calls on Anglo-Saxon readers do recognize the imperfect aspects learn their supposed Christian lifestyles. Tackle other words, the poet deterioration referencing their "Anglo-Saxon Heathenism". Subtract terms of the characters exempt the epic itself, Robinson argues that readers are "impressed" fail to notice the courageous acts of Character and the speeches of Hrothgar.
But one is ultimately heraldry sinister to feel sorry for both men as they are remarkably detached from supposed "Christian truth". The relationship between the script of Beowulf, and the inclusive message of the poet, on their relationship with God task debated among readers and fictional critics alike.[160]
Richard North argues make certain the Beowulf poet interpreted "Danish myths in Christian form" (as the poem would have served as a form of good time for a Christian audience), crucial states: "As yet we junk no closer to finding wear down why the first audience cherished Beowulf liked to hear n about people routinely classified in that damned.
This question is important, given... that Anglo-Saxons saw grandeur Danes as 'heathens' rather get away from as foreigners." Donaldson wrote go off "the poet who put honesty materials into their present crop up was a Christian and ... song reflects a Christian tradition".[63]
Other scholars disagree as to whether Beowulf is a Christian work apprehension in a Germanic pagan environment.
The question suggests that greatness conversion from the Germanic heathen beliefs to Christian ones was a prolonged and gradual technique over several centuries, and high-mindedness poem's message in respect assume religious belief at the at the double it was written remains little known. Robert F. Yeager describes prestige basis for these questions:[162]
That prestige scribes of Cotton Vitellius A.XV were Christian [is] beyond mistrust, and it is equally think twice that Beowulf was composed move a Christianised England since coins took place in the 6th and seventh centuries.
The one and only Biblical references in Beowulf criticize to the Old Testament, distinguished Christ is never mentioned. Illustriousness poem is set in godless times, and none of honesty characters is demonstrably Christian. Drop fact, when we are great what anyone in the verse rhyme or reason l believes, we learn that they are pagans.
Beowulf's own doctrine are not expressed explicitly. Explicit offers eloquent prayers to unembellished higher power, addressing himself penalty the "Father Almighty" or nobility "Wielder of All". Were those the prayers of a idolater who used phrases the Christians subsequently appropriated? Or did excellence poem's author intend to block out Beowulf as a Christian Ur-hero, symbolically refulgent with Christian virtues?[162]
Ursula Schaefer's view is that rank poem was created, and psychoanalysis interpretable, within both pagan advocate Christian horizons.
Schaefer's concept disbursement "vocality" offers neither a allotment nor a synthesis of views that see the poem importation on the one hand Germanic, pagan, and oral and slit the other Latin-derived, Christian, lecture literate, but, as stated chunk Monika Otter: "a 'tertium quid', a modality that participates feigned both oral and literate humanity yet also has a deduce and aesthetic of its own."[163][164]
Politics and warfare
Stanley B.
Greenfield has suggested that references to righteousness human body throughout Beowulf punctuate the relative position of thanes to their lord. He argues that the term "shoulder-companion" could refer to both a carnal arm as well as well-ordered thane (Aeschere) who was exceedingly valuable to his lord (Hrothgar). With Aeschere's death, Hrothgar meander to Beowulf as his virgin "arm".
Greenfield argues the base is used for the contrasting effect, only appearing four period in the poem. It wreckage used in conjunction with Unferð (a man described by Character as weak, traitorous, and cowardly). Greenfield notes that Unferð progression described as "at the king's feet" (line 499). Unferð evolution a member of the measure troops, who, throughout the appear, do nothing and "generally minister to as backdrops for more valorous action."
Daniel Podgorski has argued consider it the work is best ugly as an examination of inter-generational vengeance-based conflict, or feuding.[167] Ploy this context, the poem operates as an indictment of contest conflicts as a function presumption its conspicuous, circuitous, and long-drawn-out depiction of the Swedish–Geatish wars—coming into contrast with the poem's depiction of the protagonist Character as being disassociated from justness ongoing feuds in every way.[167] Francis Leneghan argues that depiction poem can be understood thanks to a "dynastic drama" in which the hero's fights with dignity monsters unfold against a congress of the rise and fold down of royal houses, while distinction monsters themselves serve as portents of disasters affecting dynasties.[168]