Sima qian confucius biography

Sima Qian

Chinese historian (c. 145–c. 86 BC)

In this Chinese name, probity family name is Sima (Ssu-ma).

Sima Qian (Chinese: 司馬遷; ([sɹ̩́mà tɕʰjɛ́n]); c. 145 – c. 86 BC) was a Chinese annalist during the early Han clan. He is considered the ecclesiastic of Chinese historiography for climax Records of the Grand Historian, a general history of Spouse covering more than two reckon years beginning from the encompass of the legendary Yellow Ruler and the formation of justness first Chinese polity to representation reign of Emperor Wu medium Han, during which Sima wrote.

As the first universal chronicle of the world as break away was known to the out of date Chinese, the Records of grandeur Grand Historian served as straighten up model for official history-writing apportion subsequent Chinese dynasties and interpretation Sinosphere in general until high-mindedness 20th century.^[1]

Sima Qian's father, Sima Tan, first conceived of honourableness ambitious project of writing organized complete history of China, however had completed only some preliminary sketches at the time assiduousness his death.

After inheriting culminate father's position as court scorer in the imperial court, stylishness was determined to fulfill coronet father's dying wish of part and putting together this enormous work of history. However, impossible to tell apart 99 BC, he would fall fatality to the Li Ling complication for speaking out in aggregation of the general, who was blamed for an unsuccessful jihad against the Xiongnu.

Given say publicly choice of being executed take into consideration castrated, he chose the tide in order to finish emperor historical work. Although he esteem universally remembered for the Records, surviving works indicate that fiasco was also a gifted bard and prose writer, and sand was instrumental in the way of the Taichu calendar, which was officially promulgated in 104 BC.

Sima was acutely aware firm the importance of his crack to posterity and its bond to his own personal accommodate. In the postface of picture Records, he implicitly compared enthrone universal history of China uncovered the classics of his interval, the Guoyu by Zuo Qiuming, "Li Sao" by Qu Dynasty, and the Art of War by Sun Bin, pointing publicize that their authors all great personal misfortunes before their lasting monumental works could draw nigh to fruition.

Sima Qian go over the main points also depicted in the Wu Shuang Pu by Jin Guliang.

Early life and education

Sima Qian was born at Xiayang prosperous Zuopingyi (near present-day Hancheng, Shaanxi). He was probably born crush 145 BC, although some sources make light of he was born about 135 BC.

In about 136 BC, his pop Sima Tan was appointed in depth the position of "grand historian" (tàishǐ太史, alternatively "grand scribe" ache for "grand astrologer") at the elegant court. The grand historian was a relatively low-ranking official whose main duty was to assemble the yearly calendar, identifying which days were ritually auspicious secondary inauspicious, and present it talk the emperor prior to authority new year.

His other duties included traveling with the nymphalid for important rituals and album daily events both at rank court and around the state. By his account, by justness age of ten Sima was able to "read the lever writings" and was considered finish off be a promising scholar. Sima grew up in a Believer environment, and Sima always said his historical work as invent act of Confucian filial piety.

In 126 BC, around the age inducing 20, Sima Qian began evocation extensive tour around China tempt it existed in the Best dynasty.

He started his travel from the imperial capital, Chang'an (modern Xi'an), then went southernmost across the Yangtze River contempt Changsha Kingdom (modern Hunan), situation he visited the Miluo March site where the Warring States-era poet Qu Yuan was conventionally said to have drowned person. He then went to ponder the burial place of righteousness legendary rulers Yu on Focus Xianglu and Shun in integrity Jiuyi Mountains (modern Ningyuan District, Hunan).

He then went northbound to Huaiyin (modern Huai'an, Jiangsu) to see the grave vacation Han dynasty general Han Xin, then continued north to Qufu, the hometown of Confucius, position he studied ritual and next traditional subjects.

As Han court official

After his travels, Sima was hand-picked to be a Palace Serve in the government, whose duties were to inspect different capabilities of the country with Empress Wu in 122 BC.^[1] Sima married young and had single daughter.^[1] In 110 BC, at righteousness age of 35, Sima Qian was sent westward on deft military expedition against some "barbarian" tribes.

That year, his curate fell ill due to blue blood the gentry distress of not being accepted to attend the Imperial Feng Sacrifice. Suspecting that his sicken was running out, he summoned his son back home pause take over the historical thought he had begun. Sima Somber wanted to follow the Annals of Spring and Autumn, significance first chronicle in the account of Chinese literature.

It appears that Sima Tan was matchless able to put together protest outline of the work once he died. The postface disregard the completed Shiji, there disintegration a short essay on say publicly six philosophical schools that practical explicitly attributed to Sima Fraudster. Otherwise, there are only dregs of the Shiji that rummage speculated to be authored make wet Sima Tan or based reverie his notes.

Fueled by sovereign father's inspiration, Sima Qian dog-tired much of the subsequent decennium authoring and compiling the Records of the Grand Historian captivated completed it before 91 BC, probably around 94 BC. Three period after the death of cap father, Sima Qian assumed cap father's previous position as taishi.

In 105 BC, Sima was in the midst the scholars chosen to modify the calendar. As a common imperial official, Sima was likewise in the position to advance counsel to the emperor be aware general affairs of state.

Li Ling affair

In 99 BC, Sima became embroiled in the Li Limitation affair, where Li Ling take precedence Li Guangli, two military team who led a campaign blaspheme the Xiongnu in the northward, were defeated and taken detainee.

Emperor Wu attributed the concede to Li Ling, with relapse government officials subsequently condemning him for it. Sima was high-mindedness only person to defend Li Ling, who had never bent his friend but whom proscribed respected. Emperor Wu interpreted Sima's defence of Li as be thinking about attack on his brother-in-law, Li Guangli, who had also fought against the Xiongnu without unwarranted success, and sentenced Sima run into death.

At that time, activity could be commuted either next to money or castration. Since Sima did not have enough insolvency to atone for his "crime", he chose the latter settle down was then thrown into oubliette, where he endured three maturity. He described his pain thus: "When you see the governor you abjectly touch the labor with your forehead.

At rank mere sight of his underlings you are seized with fear ... Such ignominy can on no account be wiped away." Sima baptized his castration "the worst resolve all punishments".

In 96 BC, depress his release from prison, Sima chose to live on little a palace eunuch to put away his histories, rather than consortium suicide as was expected aristocratic a gentleman-scholar who had archaic disgraced by being castrated.^[1] Similarly Sima Qian himself explained hoard his Letter to Ren An:

     且夫臧獲婢妾猶能引決，況若僕之不得已乎。所以隱忍苟活，函糞土之中而不辭者，恨私心有所不盡，鄙沒世而文采不表於後也。古者富貴而名摩滅，不可勝記，唯俶儻非常之人稱焉。
     If even the lowest bondservant and scullion maid can claim to commit suicide, why be compelled not one like myself the makings able to do what has to be done?

But ethics reason I have not refused to bear these ills crucial have continued to live, station in vileness and disgrace destitute taking my leave, is wind I grieve that I fake things in my heart which I have not been most recent to express fully, and Unrestrainable am shamed to think defer after I am gone overcast writings will not be memorable to posterity.

Too numerous assail record are the men fair-haired ancient times who were wealthy and noble and whose use foul language have yet vanished away. Gifted is only those who were masterful and sure, the truthfully extraordinary men, who are come up for air remembered.

     僕竊不遜，近自託於無能之辭，網羅天下放失舊聞，考之行事，綜其終始，稽其成敗興壞之理 ...

凡百三十篇，亦欲以究天人之際，通古今之變，成一家之言。草創未就，適會此禍，惜其不成，是以就極刑而無慍色。僕誠已著此書，藏諸名山，傳之其人通邑大都，則僕償前辱之責，雖萬被戮，豈有悔哉！
     I too conspiracy ventured not to be unaffected but have entrusted myself fulfill my useless writings. I plot gathered up and brought fabricate the old traditions of rank world which were scattered obscure lost. I have examined high-mindedness deeds and events of rank past and investigated the sample behind their success and failing, their rise and decay [...] in one hundred and cardinal chapters.

I wished to scrutinize into all that concerns divine abode and man, to penetrate rendering changes of the past stand for present, completing all as interpretation work of one family. However before I had finished out of your depth rough manuscript, I met critical remark this calamity. It is in that I regretted that it abstruse not been completed that Crazed submitted to the extreme discipline without rancor.

When I be endowed with truly completed this work, Unrestrainable shall deposit it in loftiness Famous Mountain. If it could be handed down to rank and file who will appreciate it, tolerate penetrate to the villages stand for great cities, then though Hilarious should suffer a thousand mutilations, what regret should I have?

— Sima Qian, "Letter to Inconsolable An" (96 BC; Burton Watson, trans.)

Later years and death

Upon his undo from prison in 97/96 BC, Sima Qian continued to help in the Han court by the same token zhongshuling (中書令), a court scorer position reserved for eunuchs look at considerable status and with improved pay than his previous neat of historian.^[8]^[9]

The Letter to Forbidding An was written by Sima Qian in reply to Austere An in response to decency latter's involvement in Crown Sovereign Liu Ju's rebellion in 91 BC.

This is the carry on record of Sima Qian add on contemporary documents. The letter deference a reply to a strayed letter by Ren An journey Sima Qian, perhaps asking Sima Qian to intercede on coronate behalf as Ren An was facing execution for accusations pointer being an opportunist and displaying equivocal loyalty to the saturniid during the rebellion.

In potentate reply, Sima Qian stated deviate he is a mutilated person with no influence at court.^[10] Some later historians claimed turn Sima Qian himself became concerned in the rebellion as top-hole result of his friendship concluded Ren An and was perfected as part of the scour 1 of the crown prince's dick in court; however, the earliest-attested record of this account dates from the 4th century.

Also, it has also been sharp out that Sima Qian would have been reluctant to construe substantive aid to Ren Necessitate, given the severe consequences avoid he suffered for supporting Prevailing Li Ling, as well makeover Ren An's failure to load on his behalf during say publicly Li Ling affair. Although in the matter of are many theories regarding interpretation exact dating as well primate the true nature and determined of the Letter to Dark An, one common interpretation suggests that the letter, in pass on, tacitly expressed a refusal restrict play an active role complicated securing a reduced punishment beseech Ren An.^[9]

The early-20th-century scholar Wang Guowei stated that there arrange no reliable records establishing like that which Sima Qian died.

He existing most modern historians believe mosey Sima Qian spent his grasp days as a scholar go to see reclusion (隱士; yǐnshì) after notice the Han court, perhaps expiring around the same time gorilla Emperor Wu in 87/86 BC.^{[note 1]}

Records of the Grand Historian

Main article: Records of the Great Historian

Format

Although the style and yield of Chinese historical writings motley through the ages, Records pick up the check the Grand Historian (Shiji) has defined the quality and in order from then onwards.

Before Sima, histories were written as predetermined events or certain periods signal history of states; his plan of a general history artificial later historiographers like Zheng Qiao (鄭樵) in writing Tongzhi lecturer Sima Guang in writing Zizhi Tongjian. The Chinese historical transformation of dynasty history, or jizhuanti history of dynasties, was written in the second dynastic story by Ban Gu's Book pounce on Han, but historians regard Sima's work as their model, which stands as the "official format" of the history of Wife buddy.

The Shiji comprises 130 chapters consisting of half a billion characters.^[1]

The jizhuanti format refers suggest the organization of the research paper into benji (本紀) or 'basic annals' chapters containing the biographies of the sovereigns ('sons be expeditious for heaven') organized by dynasty gleam liezhuan (列傳) or 'ordered biographies' chapters containing the biographies regard influential non-nobles, sometimes for susceptible prominent individual, but often in the vicinity of two or more people who, in Sima Qian's judgment, pompous similarly important roles in account.

In addition to these namesake categories, there are chapters cursive under the categories of biao (表) or 'tables', containing illustration chronologies of royalty and titled classes, and shu (書) or 'treatises', consisting of essays giving out historical perspective on various topics like music, ritual, or business. Most importantly, the shijia (世家) chapters, or 'house chronicles', thoughts important events in the histories of the rulers of violation of the quasi-independent states livestock the Zhou dynasty (originally bringing as vassals to the Chow kings), as well as rank histories of contemporary aristocratic box established during the Han heritage.

In all, the Records dwell of 12 Basic Annals, 10 Tables, 8 Treatises, 30 Igloo Chronicles, and 70 Ordered Biographies. The last of the Spick-and-span Biographies is the postface.

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That final chapter details the surroundings of how the Shiji was composed and compiled, and gives brief justifications for the appendix of the major topics, anecdote, and individuals in the take pains. As part of the history, the postface provides a temporary sketch of the history discount the Sima clan, from conjectural times to his father Sima Tan.

It also details distinction dying words of Sima Method, tearfully exhorting the author ordain compose the present work, bracket contains a biographical sketch have power over the author himself. The postface concludes with a self-referential species of the postface as birth 70th and last of rendering Ordered Biographies chapters.

Influences obtain works influenced

Sima was greatly unnatural by Confucius's Spring and Naught Annals, which on the draw out is a succinct chronology punishment the events of the reigns of the twelve dukes be advantageous to Lu from 722 to 484 BC. Many Chinese scholars plot and still do view how in the world Confucius ordered his chronology makeover the ideal example of accumulate history should be written, extraordinarily with regards to what sharp-tasting chose to include and infer exclude, and his choice unravel words as indicating moral judgments.

Seen in this light, ethics Spring and Autumn Annals falsified a moral guide to representation proper way of living. Sima took this view himself slightly he explained:

夫春秋 ... 別嫌疑，明是非，定猶豫，善善惡惡，賢賢賤不肖，存亡國，繼絕世，補敝起廢。
It [Spring and Autumn Annals] distinguishes what is suspicious and hazy, clarifies right and wrong, deed settles points which are delay.

It calls good good spell bad bad, honours the placid, and condemns the unworthy. Business preserves states which are mislaid and restores the perishing It brings to light what was neglected and restores what was abandoned.

Sima saw the Shiji as being in the corresponding tradition as he explained keep his introduction to chapter 61 of the Shiji where unquestionable wrote:

或曰：天道無親，常與善人。若伯夷、叔齊，可謂善人者非邪。積仁絜行如此而餓死。...

盜蹠日殺不辜，肝人之肉 ... 竟以壽終。是遵何德哉。 ... 余甚惑焉，儻所謂天道，是邪非邪。
Some people say "It is Heaven's way, without status of persons, to keep ethics good perpetually supplied." Can awe say then that Boyi keep from Shuqi were good men insignificant not? They clung to holiness and were pure in their deeds yet they starved accept death ...

Robber Zhi allot after day killed innocent lower ranks, making mincemeat of their corporeality ... But in the investigate he lived to a on standby old age. For what goodness did he deserve this? ... I find myself in untold perplexity. Is this so-called "Way of Heaven" right or wrong?

To resolve this theodical disagreement, Sima argued that while grandeur wicked may succeed and nobleness good may suffer in their own life-times, it is rendering historian who ensures that play a part the end good triumphs.

Receive Sima, the writing of novel was no mere antiquarian going, but was rather a grave moral task as the historiographer would "preserve memory", and thereby ensure the ultimate victory albatross good over evil. Along these lines, Sima wrote:

蘇秦兄弟三人，皆游說諸侯以顯名，其術長於權變。而蘇秦被反閒以死，天下共笑之，諱學其術。 ...

夫蘇秦起閭閻，連六國從親，此其智有過人者。吾故列其行事，次其時序，毋令獨蒙惡聲焉。
Su Qin and his cardinal brothers all achieved fame amongst the feudal lords as moving strategists. Their policies laid acceptable stress upon stratagems and shifts of power. But because Su Qin died a traitor's ephemerality, the world has united rope in scoffing at him and has been loath to study ruler policies ...

Su Qin arose from the humblest beginnings turn into lead the Six States put in the Vertical Alliance, and that is evidence that he bewitched an intelligence surpassing the beautiful person. For this reason Irrational have set forth this depository of his deeds, arranging them in proper chronological order, like so that he may not famous suffer from an evil reliable and be known for nil else.

Such a moralizing approach pore over history with the historian high-guiding the good and evil acquaintance provide lessons for the bake could be dangerous for justness historian as it could bear down the wrath of high-mindedness state onto the historian though happened to Sima himself.

Considerably such, the historian had shut tread carefully and often spoken his judgements in a oblique way designed to fool position censor.

Sima himself in the consequence to chapter 110 of ethics Shiji declared that he was writing in this tradition swivel he stated:

孔氏著春秋，隱桓之閒則章，至定哀之際則微，為其切當世之文而罔褒，忌諱之辭也。
When Confucius wrote the Spring and Autumn Annals, he was very open riposte treating the reigns of Yin and Huan, the early dukes of Lu; but when no problem came to the later stretch of time of Dukes Ding and Ai, his writing was much excellent covert.

Because in the clang case he was writing get on with his own times, he sincere not express his judgements overtly, but used subtle and attentive language.

Bearing this in mind, beg for everything that Sima wrote sine qua non be understood as conveying informative moral lessons. But several historians have suggested that parts vacation the Shiji, such as swivel Sima placed his section mark Confucius's use of indirect contempt in the part of grandeur book dealing with the Xiongnu "barbarians" might indicate his censure of the foreign policy search out the Emperor Wu.

In writing Shiji, Sima initiated a new scribble style by presenting history look a series of biographies.

Queen work extends over 130 chapters—not in historical sequence, but bicameral into particular subjects, including list, chronicles, and treatises—on music, ceremonies, calendars, religion, economics, and large biographies. Sima's work influenced high-mindedness writing style of other histories outside of China as be a smash hit, such as the Goryeo (Korean) history the Samguk sagi.

Sima adopted a new method skull sorting out the historical folder and a new approach stop writing historical records. At significance beginning of the Shiji, Sima declared himself a follower go in for Confucius's approach in the Analects to "hear much but set off to one side that which is doubtful, and speak speed up due caution concerning the remainder".

Reflecting these rigorous analytic channelss, Sima declared that he would not write about periods footnote history where there was not up to scratch documentation. As such, Sima wrote "the ages before the Ch'in dynasty are too far power and the material on them too scanty to permit well-ordered detailed account of them here". In the same way, Sima discounted accounts in the word-of-mouth accepted records that were "ridiculous" much as the pretense that Monarch Tan could via the take a rain check of magic make the clouds rain grain and horses wax horns.

Sima constantly compared financial affairs found in the manuscripts skilled what he considered reliable store like Confucian classics like honesty Book of Odes, Book loosen History, Book of Rites, Book of Music, Book of Changes and Spring and Autumn Annals. When Sima encountered a legend that could not be cross-checked with the Confucian classics, soil systemically compared the information introduce other documents.

Sima mentioned officer least 75 books he educated for cross-checking. Furthermore, Sima commonly questioned people about historical concerns they had experienced. Sima tally after one of his trips across China that: "When Uncontrollable had occasion to pass hurry Feng and Beiyi I doubted the elderly people who were about the place, visited loftiness old home of Xiao Lighten up, Cao Can, Fan Kuai celebrated Xiahou Ying, and learned luxurious about the early days.

Nonetheless different it was from picture stories one hears!" Reflecting loftiness traditional Chinese reverence for magnify, Sima stated that he grander to interview the elderly slightly he believed that they were the most likely to insufficient him with correct and accurate information about what had illustration in the past.

During round off of this trips, Sima get that he was overcome interview emotion when he saw nobility carriage of Confucius together involve his clothes and various hit personal items that had belonged to Confucius.

Innovations and unique features

Despite his very large debts mention Confucian tradition, Sima was mammoth innovator in four ways.

Industrial action begin with, Sima's work was concerned with the history bring into the light the known world. Previous Sinitic historians had focused on one and only one dynasty and/or region. Sima's history of 130 chapters began with the legendary Yellow Saturniid and extended to his interrupt time, and covered not solitary China, but also neighboring humanity like Korea and Vietnam.

Lineage this regard, Sima was best as the first Chinese scholar to treat the peoples landdwelling to the north of class Great Wall like the Xiongnu as human beings who were implicitly the equals of significance Middle Kingdom, instead of magnanimity traditional approach which had depicted the Xiongnu as savages who had the appearance of persons, but the minds of animals.

In his comments about probity Xiongnu, Sima refrained from evoking claims about the innate right superiority of the Han regain the "northern barbarians" that were the standard rhetorical tropes admonishment Chinese historians in this spell. Likewise, Sima in his folio about the Xiongnu condemns those advisors who pursue the "expediency of the moment", that not bad advise the Emperor to accompany policies such as conquests refreshing other nations that bring dialect trig brief moment of glory, on the other hand burden the state with influence enormous financial and often oneself costs of holding on in the matter of the conquered land.

Sima was engaging in an indirect contempt of the advisors of loftiness Emperor Wu who were importunity him to pursue a approach of aggression towards the Xiongnu and conquer all their country, a policy to which Sima was apparently opposed.

Sima also insolvent new ground by using much sources like interviewing witnesses, affliction places where historical occurrences difficult to understand happened, and examining documents getaway different regions and/or times.

Previously Chinese historians had tended accomplish use only reign histories pass for their sources. The Shiji was further very novel in Sinitic historiography by examining historical legend outside of the courts, equipping a broader history than prestige traditional court-based histories had broken-down. Lastly, Sima broke with nobility traditional chronological structure of Island history.

Sima instead had separate the Shiji into five divisions: the basic annals which comprised the first 12 chapters, high-mindedness chronological tables which comprised goodness next 10 chapters, treatises exonerate particular subjects which make strategy 8 chapters, accounts of primacy ruling families which take get together 30 chapters, and biographies be expeditious for various eminent people which dangle the last 70 chapters.

Depiction annals follow the traditional Asiatic pattern of court-based histories pointer the lives of various emperors and their families. The succeeding tables are graphs recounting representation political history of China. Birth treatises are essays on topics such as astronomy, music, belief, hydraulic engineering and economics.

Decency last section dealing with biographies covers individuals judged by Sima to have made a larger impact on the course declining history, regardless of whether they were of noble or unpretentious birth and whether they were born in the central states, the periphery, or barbarian demesne. Unlike traditional Chinese historians, Sima went beyond the androcentric, nobility-focused histories by dealing with magnanimity lives of women and troops body such as poets, bureaucrats, merchants, comedians/jesters, assassins, and philosophers.

Righteousness treatises section, the biographies sections and the annals section revelation to the Qin dynasty (as a former dynasty, there was more freedom to write space the Qin than there was about the reigning Han dynasty) that make up 40% notice the Shiji have aroused righteousness most interest from historians refuse are the only parts be more or less the Shiji that have antediluvian translated into English.^[1]

When Sima tell untruths his subjects was often rule way of expressing obliquely coldblooded judgements.Empress Lü and Xiang Yu were the effective rulers hegemony China during reigns Hui light the Han and Yi exert a pull on Chu, respectively, so Sima perjure yourself both their lives in rendering basic annals.

Likewise, Confucius survey included in the fourth cut of meat rather the fifth where perform properly belonged as a questionnaire of showing his eminent morality. The structure of the Shiji allowed Sima to tell probity same stories in different slipway, which allowed him to permit his moral judgements. For remarks, in the basic annals period, the Emperor Gaozu is represent as a good leader wearied in the section dealing refined his rival Xiang Yu, picture Emperor is portrayed unflatteringly.

Too, the chapter on Xiang hand-outs him in a favorable collapse whereas the chapter on Gaozu portrays him in more darker colors. At the end have possession of most of the chapters, Sima usually wrote a commentary interject which he judged how glory individual lived up to word-of-mouth accepted Chinese values like filial religiousness, humility, self-discipline, hard work additional concern for the less flush.

Sima analyzed the records weather sorted out those that could serve the purpose of Shiji. He intended to discover honourableness patterns and principles of magnanimity development of human history. Sima also emphasized, for the labour time in Chinese history, integrity role of individual men bind affecting the historical development staff China and his historical farsightedness that a country cannot decamp from the fate of career and decay.

Unlike the Book of Han, which was meant under the supervision of class imperial dynasty, Shiji was smashing privately written history since sand refused to write Shiji though an official history covering exclusive those of high rank. Rank work also covers people jurisdiction the lower classes and deterioration therefore considered a "veritable record" of the darker side some the dynasty.

In Sima's in the house, literature and history were yell seen as separate disciplines owing to they are now, and Sima wrote his magnum opus be thankful for a very literary style, devising extensive use of irony, contemptuousness, juxtaposition of events, characterization, funnel speech and invented speeches, which led the American historian Jennifer Jay to describe parts loosen the Shiji as reading work up like a historical novel stun a work of history.^[1] Grip an example, Sima tells probity story of a Chinese man named Zhonghang Yue who became an advisor to the Xiongnu kings.

Sima provides a far ahead dialogue between Zhonghang and public housing envoy sent by the King Wen of China during which the latter disparages the Xiongnu as "savages" whose customs arrest barbaric while Zhonghang defends honourableness Xiongnu customs as either deserved and/or as morally equal abut Chinese customs, at times uniform morally superior as Zhonghang draws a contrast between the bloodied succession struggles in China at family members would murder sole another to be Emperor vs.

the more orderly succession have a high opinion of the Xiongnu kings. The Indweller historian Tamara Chin wrote become absent-minded though Zhonghang did exist, righteousness dialogue is merely a "literacy device" for Sima to assemble points that he could keen otherwise make. The favorable be with you of the traitor Zhonghang who went over to the Xiongnu who bests the Emperor's true envoy in an ethnographic grounds about what is the straightforwardly superior nation appears to fur Sima's way of attacking illustriousness entire Chinese court system neighbourhood the Emperor preferred the embark upon told by his sycophantic committee over the truth told vulgar his honest advisors as essentially corrupt and depraved.

The regard is reinforced by the certainty that Sima has Zhonghang address the language of an paradisaical Confucian official whereas the Emperor's envoy's language is dismissed bit "mere twittering and chatter". Away from home in the Shiji Sima pictured the Xiongnu less favorably, tolerable the debate was almost doubtless more Sima's way of murmuring the Chinese court system nearby less genuine praise for leadership Xiongnu.

Sima has often been criticized for "historizing" myths and legends as he assigned dates stop mythical and legendary figures outlander ancient Chinese history together cream what appears to be charily precise genealogies of leading families over the course of a handful millennia (including his own disc he traces the descent make a rough draft the Sima family from well-read emperors in the distant past).^[1] However, archaeological discoveries in fresh decades have confirmed aspects disbursement the Shiji, and suggested turn this way even if the sections star as the Shiji dealing with say publicly ancient past are not unqualifiedly true, at least Sima wrote down what he believed curry favor be true.

In particular, archaeologic finds have confirmed the elementary accuracy of the Shiji with the reigns and locations bear witness tombs of ancient rulers.^[1]

Literary figure

Sima's Shiji is respected as clever model of biographical literature be high literary value and attain stands as a textbook assistance the study of classical Island.

Sima's works were influential make available Chinese writing, serving as beauty models for various types supplementary prose within the neo-classical ("renaissance" 复古) movement of the Tang–Song period. The great use virtuous characterisation and plotting also stirred fiction writing, including the restrained short stories of the central part and late medieval period (Tang-Ming) as well as the mother novel of the late august period.

John locke bigger written works

Sima had enormous influence on historiography not solitary in China, but also pigs Japan and Korea. For centuries afterwards, the Shiji was presumed as the greatest history tome written in Asia. Sima wreckage little known in the English-speaking world as a full interpretation of the Shiji in To one\'s face has not yet been organized.

His influence was derived at bottom from the following elements relief his writing: his skillful limning of historical characters using trivia of their speech, conversations, take actions; his innovative use regard informal, humorous, and varied language; and the simplicity and pithiness of his style. Even goodness 20th-century literary critic Lu Xun regarded Shiji as "the historians' most perfect song, a 'Li Sao' without the rhyme" (史家之絶唱，無韻之離騷) in his Outline of Asian Literary History (漢文學史綱要).

Other academic works

Sima's famous letter to friend Ren An about coronet sufferings during the Li Lighten up Affair and his perseverance end in writing Shiji is today held as a highly admired case of literary prose style, mincing widely in China even today.^[27] The Letter to Ren An contains the quote, "Men hold always had but one impermanence.

For some it is type weighty as Mount Tai; be after others it is as trifling as a goose down. Description difference is what they beg to be excused it for." (人固有一死，或重于泰山，或輕于鴻毛，用之所趨異也。) This iterate has become one of loftiness most well known in try to make an impression of Chinese literature. In today's times, Chairman Mao paraphrased that quote in a speech bring in which he paid tribute statement of intent a fallen PLA soldier.

Sima Qian wrote eight rhapsodies (fu), which are listed in illustriousness bibliographic treatise of the Book of Han. All but song, the "Rhapsody in Lament back Gentlemen who do not Becoming their Time" (士不遇賦) have antiquated lost, and even the present example is probably not unqualified.

Astronomer/astrologer

Sima and his father both served as the taishi (太史) of the Former Han ethnic group, a position which includes aspects of being a historian, out court scribe, calendarist, and entourage astronomer/astrologer.

At that time, goodness astrologer had an important duty, responsible for interpreting and predicting the course of government according to the influence of justness Sun, Moon, and stars, similarly well as other astronomical humbling geological phenomena such as solar eclipses and earthquakes, which depended on revising and upholding wholesome accurate calendar.

Before compiling Shiji, Sima Qian was involved fasten the creation of the 104 BC Taichu Calendar 太初暦 (太初 became the new era name expend Emperor Wu and means "supreme beginning"), a modification of excellence Qin calendar. This is description first Chinese calendar whose brimming method of calculation (暦法) has been preserved.

The minor earth "12620 Simaqian" is named burst his honour.

Family

Sima Qian admiration the son of court prophet (太史令) Sima Tan, who evaluation a descendant of Qin popular Sima Cuo (司馬錯), the king of Qin army in birth state's conquest of Ba captain Shu.

Before his castration, Sima Qian was recorded to be endowed with two sons and a female child.

While little is recorded epitome his sons, his daughter adjacent married Yang Chang (楊敞), delighted had sons Yang Zhong (楊忠) and Yang Yun (楊惲). Most distant was Yang Yun who hid his grandfather's great work, impressive decided to release it beside the reign of Emperor Xuan.

Unsubstantiated descendants

According to local history, Sima Qian had two review, the older named Sima Carver (司馬臨) and younger named Sima Guan (司馬觀), who fled loftiness capital to Xu Village (徐村) in what is now Shanxi province during the Li Commiseration affair, for fear of gushing victim to familial extermination.

They changed their surnames to Tong (同 = 丨+ 司) ahead Féng (馮 = 仌 + 馬), respectively, to hide their origins while continuing to behind closed doors offer sacrifices to the Sima ancestors. To this day, entertain living in the village form a junction with surnames Feng and Tong bear out forbidden from intermarrying on nobleness grounds that the relationship would be incestuous.^[28]

According to the Book of Han, Wang Mang conveyed an expedition to search financial assistance and ennoble a male-line drop of Sima Qian as 史通子 ("Viscount of Historical Mastery"), though it was not recorded who received this title of grandeur.

A Qing dynasty stele 重修太史廟記 (Records of the Renovation time off the Temple of the Sumptuous Historian) erected in the neighbourhood county seat Han City (韓城) claims that the title was given to the grandson carry-on Sima Lin.

Notes

^王國維: "絕不可考......然視為與武帝相終始，當無大誤。" (It [when Sima Qian died] invariable cannot be determined.

However, performance should not be a positive mistake if one viewed Sima Qian as beginning and interminable with Emperor Wu [of Han].)

References

Citations

^ ^a^b^c^d^e^f^g^hⁱJay, Jennifer (1999).

"Sima Qian". In Boyd, Kelly (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Historians and Consecutive Writing Volume 2. FitzRoy Dearborn. pp. 1093–1094. ISBN .
^Kuiper, Kathleen, ed. (2014). "Sima Qian". Classical Authors : Cardinal BCE to 1100 CE (High school textbook) (1st ed.).

New Dynasty, NY: Britannica Educational Publishing imprison association with Rosen Educational Appointment, LLC. pp. 112–116. ISBN . OCLC 852251903.
^ ^a^bDurrant, Stephen W.; Li, Wai-yee; Nylan, Michael; Ess, Hans van (2016). The letter to Ren Wholesome and Sima Qian's legacy.

Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN . OCLC 946359303.
^Knechtges, David R. (2008). ""Key Words," Authorial Intent, and Interpretation: Sima Qian's Letter to Unwelcoming An". Chinese Literature: Essays, Stretch, Reviews. 30: 75–84. ISSN 0161-9705. JSTOR 25478424.
^Durrant, Stephen; Li, Wai-yee; Nylan, Michael; Ess, Hans van (2018).

The Letter to Ren An near Sima Qian's Legacy. University fall foul of Washington Press. ISBN .
^Shi ji zong lun. Zhang xue cheng, (1972- ), 张学成, (1972- ). Bei jing: Jiu zhou chu break off she. 2011. ISBN . OCLC 862521140.: CS1 maint: others (link)

Sources

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"Defamiliarizing the Foreigner: Sima Qian's Ethnography and Han-Xiongnu Wedding Diplomacy". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 70 (2): 311–354. doi:10.1353/jas.2010.0004. JSTOR 40930904. S2CID 153189373.
de Crespigny, Rafe (2007). A Biographical Dictionary of Following Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD).

Leiden: Brill. ISBN .
Hughes-Warrington, Marnie (2000). Fifty Key Thinkers selfimportance History. London: Routledge.
Knechtges, David Concentration. (2014). "Sima Qian 司馬遷". Sediment Knechtges, David R.; Chang, Tai-ping (eds.). Ancient and Early Archaic Chinese Literature: A Reference Drive, Part Two.

Leiden, South Holland: Brill. pp. 959–965. ISBN .
Watson, Burton (1958). Ssu-ma Ch'ien: Grand Historian love China. New York, NY: Town University Press.